“The magnificent virgin forests of Red Ironbark, Grey and Red Box, and White Ironbark, which formerly clothed the ranges in the vicinity of all northern district mining towns, have all long since disappeared. In the early days the miners and others removed trees as they saw fit, without let or hindrance, taking the best trees and those nearest the scene of mining operations. Gradually inroads were made further and further into the bush, until finally all accessible trees were completely removed. Trees were cut at all heights from the ground; only the best part of the tree was utilized - perhaps only one length of sleepers or one length of mine timbers removed - and the rest left to rot and constitute a serious fire hazard. About this time the bark of the Red Ironbark was harvested for tanning purposes, and thousands of splendid trees were killed by stripping for the tanning market, the whole of the timber, as a rule, going to waste. Some idea of what the original forests must have been at one time can be gathered from the fact that millions of sleepers of Box and Ironbark were removed from these forests during the last century, whereas now hardly a tree can be found which is large enough to convert to this use. Bealiba forest alone supplied all sleepers for the construction of the Maryborough-Donald, Creswick-Daylesford, Ballarat-Buninyong, Hopetoun, and Lubeck and other railway lines, besides furnishing all the requisite mining props and panelling for the surrounding mining population. The wholesale destruction of the forests was accomplished before any attempt was made to exercise control over the timber-getters. It was not until some 25 years ago that any degree of forestry control was exercised.” ¹

Victoria’s major contiguous areas of Box-Ironbark forest are found on the undulating foothills on the northern side of the Great Dividing Range between the Wimmera River in the west, the Goulburn River in the east and extending onto the northern plains. Outliers occur in north-eastern Victoria, on stony soils in the Werribee Gorge, Brisbane Ranges, Pyrete Ranges and Aireys Inlet, as well as in the Christmas Hills and in the mixed forests of East Gippsland.

The forest type occurs on sites characterized by poor soils and low rainfall. Growth under such conditions is extremely slow, rendering the resultant timber hard, dense and durable. Although the topography is somewhat subdued, the principal tree species are generally confined to specific parts of the landscape, generally mixed, but occasionally in pure patches. Red Ironbark ( Eucalyptus tricarpa) is found on the higher, less fertile, stony ridges and upper parts of the slopes - and was indicative of an auriferous country; White Ironbark or Yellow Gum ( E. leucoxylon) occurs on the lower slopes of the ridges and on flats; Grey Box ( E. microcarpa) is found on the better soils of the alluvial flats and in the gullies; Red Box ( E. polyanthemos) chiefly occurs on the ridges while Yellow Box ( E. melliodora) is confined to the best soils at the bottom of the gullies; Long-leaf Box or Applejack ( E. goniocalyx) is on the slopes of the ridges; and Red Stringybark ( E. macrorhyncha) is found on the higher ridges. A detailed analysis of the Box-Ironbark forest type and its uses and management in Victoria can be found in Silviculture Reference Manual No. 4 – Box-Ironbark in Victoria's State Forests.

While these forests formed part of the larger economic zones exploited by Aboriginal Australians, colonial-era writers recorded several particular uses of Box-Ironbark species by Aborigines, including: steeping the blossoms of Red Ironbark in water to produce a sweet beverage; using ironbark wood for canoes, boomerangs, spears, throwing sticks and shields; and using the bark of box trees for the construction of huts and as a medium for ceremonial sculptures. ²

In the early stages of European settlement of the colony of Victoria, and although extensive grazing leases were delineated, the environmental impact of the pastoralists on Box-Ironbark forests was relatively benign and the amount-of timber harvested was comparatively negligible. But, following the discovery of gold in 1851, the massive influx of migrants from all over the world created a huge demand for timber and bark for buildings, domestic firewood, ‘cradles’ and puddling machines, and derricks and mine props as well as fuel for steam engines which denuded their surrounds of useful timber. Their demand for food caused the development of intensive agricultural practices, all resulting in the clearing of the forests in the vicinity of the Ballarat, Castlemaine, and Bendigo goldfields. Charcoal production also commenced as forges proliferated on farms and factories, and mining turned to heat-treatment of the ores.

 

Red Ironbark near Rushworth
1946
Source: FCRPA

During the decade following the discovery of gold:

“a remarkable change of scene took place, as thousands of people of all nationalities flocked to the richly auriferous box-ironbark region and the forests became alive with mining communities living in small towns and villages composed largely of tents, huts and shanties. … At this time and for several decades later the exploitation of the forests was virtually uncontrolled and the fine virgin stands of prime timber were ruthlessly exploited to provide timber and fuel for the mining industry.” ⁴

This loss of forest areas prompted Conservator of Forests, GS Perrin, in his annual report to Parliament on 30 June 1890 to write:

“The auriferous lands now unalienated, and to a great extent unused, are of the utmost value to the scheme of general forest conservation throughout Victoria. These lands occupying, as they do, large areas in the neighbourhood of cities with large populations are most valuable. As the lands are taken up by the farmer and the progress of agriculture goes on throughout the country timber must become scarce. Many of these areas comprise the habitat of probably the most valuable timber we possess – the ironbark. This tree is not only useful for mining, but it is also valuable for coachbuilding, and might be used largely in railway construction and many other industrial purposes. It is a singular fact that the ironbark is invariably associated with auriferous lands, the ironstone ranges of our mining centres appear to be the home of this most excellent timber tree. Here, then, we have whole districts in the immediate neighbourhood of Sandhurst, Maryborough, Talbot, Heathcote, Chiltern, Inglewood, and other places where the ironbark luxuriates and grows by millions. The Forest Department should secure all the valuable timbered ranges, now covered with a grand crop of ironbark and other valuable timber in the neighbourhood of the places mentioned.”

“Box-Ironbark forests and woodlands once covered three million hectares of northern Victoria, prior to European settlement. Since then, 83% of the original Box-Ironbark vegetation has been cleared. Today only 496000 ha remains – most of that (372 000 ha) is on public land.” ³ “Most of the better land in the region was alienated from the Crown prior to 1900 and has been cleared for agricultural purposes leaving the forests confined to areas of poorer soil unsuitable for farming. In consequence, the forest areas are now found scattered through the region in fairly-compact blocks of various sizes interspersed with cleared farm lands, which project into the forests in places where valleys and flats of better quality soil occur.” ⁴

Perrin introduced supervised thinning of regrowth stands in 1891, using labourers and licensees to produce mine props and firewood. ⁷ By 1917, upwards of 8000 ha of Box-Ironbark and River Red Gum regrowth forests had been treated by thinning.

“In an endeavour to build up a healthy forest and repair the damage resultant upon the ruthless exploitation of the timber in past years, advantage has been taken of the fact that all the valuable species have regenerated through vigorous coppice shoots. Regeneration from seed is usually difficult to obtain, especially in the case of the Red Ironbark, but where seedling reproduction does result it is in all cases favoured before coppice growth. The form of the improved forest varies with the condition of the original unimproved stand, but generally speaking will consist of Coppice with Standards [seedlings]. In Maryborough Forest District, owing to the proximity of the forest to what has always been a busy town, the forests have been so badly damaged that the improvement work consists practically of a clear felling. In Dunolly and Bealiba forest there are often a sufficient number of healthy trees in the original stand to give the necessary density of stocking without the aid of any new coppice growth.” ¹

“In all operations the most valuable species, Grey Box and Red Ironbark, are given preference over the others. The initial treatment of an unimproved stand is carried out either by the Commission's employees or under licence by a contractor, the work in the latter case being strictly supervised by the forest officer. In both cases the trees to be left standing are marked by the forest officer, these being trees of the best species which are considered thrifty and which seem likely to develop when the stand is opened up. The timber removed by this improvement felling is utilized for whatever purpose it is most suitable, telegraph poles, posts and firewood being the chief products. All felling is done by axe and the cut made as close to the ground as practicable to encourage good stool growth and to minimize the danger of injury by wind. The number of standards left per acre depends entirely on the condition of the original stand. All operations subsequent to the preliminary treatment are carried out by the improvement gang employed by the Commission. After the initial cutting, there comes a heavy coppice regrowth, a certain proportion of which will be required to complete the restocking of the area. In the year following the felling, and preferably in autumn, the area is worked over, and all coppice from stools not required for restocking is knocked out.” ¹

Kellas in 1987 reported that: “Thinning has continued, depending on labour, funding or timber demand under working plans initiated in the late 1920s and 1930s with approximately 1,000 ha per year being treated currently. Re-thinning of previously treated areas commenced by 1937.” ⁷ The thinning practices during the 1920s were aimed at leaving only the best trees with ample growing space.

During the Economic Depression of the 1930s many thousands of men throughout the State were unemployed. In order to give temporary relief and to stimulate economic recovery, government funds were made available to employ men in the forests and in other public works. Thousands of men at a time from the unemployment pool were given forest work in relays, and the Box-Ironbark forests received their share of this labour force. These men lived in relief camps in the forests and performed thinnings and improvement works, converting the felled material to fuelwood. Large quantities of fuelwood were produced in these operations and almost half of it was bought by the Government and distributed free to the unemployed in the city and country. Returns from these sales accounted for more than half the costs of the work and thus many thousands of acres of forest were silviculturally treated at low cost. ⁴ Relief camps were set up near Bealiba, Castlemaine, Chiltern and Rushworth.

The Depression also brought about a partial revival in mining with a renewed demand for mining timbers, and in consequence of this and the activities of the relief gangs, many parts of the forests once again became hives of industry, but on this occasion utilization was rigidly controlled. ⁴

Manpower and coal were in short supply from 1941. Most of the coal produced was channelled to the war industries and wood fuel replaced coal to a large extent as the source of power in most other industries, and even in locomotives of the Victorian Railways. To produce the fuel required, vast areas of overstocked forests were thinned out to the great silvicultural benefit of the stands concerned. This work was carried out by licensed operators, and also by forest camps of interned aliens which operated throughout the war years. Prisoner-of-war camps were also established in the forests with the prisoners engaged in thinnings, improvement fellings and conversion of the felled material to fuelwood. The alien and prisoner-of-war camps were located in remote parts of the forests, which in normal circumstances would not have received silvicultural treatment for many years ahead. An aftermath of the war was the emigration to Australia from war-torn Europe of displaced persons of many nationalities. They were required to work for the Government for two years before becoming eligible to enter civilian life, and for several years after the war many were posted to the forest camps lately vacated by internees and prisoners-of-war where they carried on the work of forest improvement and fuelwood production. ⁴

 

Yellow Box near Graytown
1946
Source: FCRPA

During the war also, most of the available liquid fuel was channelled to the Armed Services. The balance was quite inadequate for industrial and civilian requirements. To meet this emergency, liquid fuel was drastically rationed and the motors of commercial vehicles and many private cars were converted for operation by ‘producer gas’. Thousands of tons of charcoal for this purpose were produced annually in the forests. The materials for charcoal burning consisted of dry wood, lying on the ground or in standing ringbarked trees, and wood converted from thinnings and improvement fellings and allowed to dry or partially dry in stacks. The wood was burned with reduced air supply in iron retorts, frequently made from old boilers, or pits, the work being performed by both departmental and licensed operators. ⁴ Charcoal kilns operated by the Forests Commission were located at Dunolly, Ballarat and Bendigo. ² Charcoal production from these forests ceased in the 1950s.

During the 1950–1980 period, apart from firewood, the main focus of the local timber industry became production of posts, strainers, sleepers, shed poles and round rails for horse and cattle yards. Following that period, demand significantly decreased for round timbers due to the increased availability of treated pine. ⁶ The forests were nevertheless still under intensive use, albeit for a greater variety of purposes:

“Timbers from trees felled during current thinnings are in strong demand because of their durability for fence posts and railway sleepers, and their high calorific value as firewood. When the box and ironbark trees are in flower, bees from thousands of hives are used to harvest the large quantities of valuable honey and wax. Flowers on the trees and shrubs attract a large population of birds. These forests are popular with naturalists and sightseers, especially in late winter and spring when the weather is finer and warmer than in southern Victoria.” ⁸

Sawlog production from the Box-Ironbark forests fluctuated after the 1980s, depending on availability of timber and markets for the finished products. Production of all wood products declined significantly in the 2000s following the reduction in land potentially available for sawlog production as a result of Government acceptance of Environment Conservation Council recommendations in 2001. As an outcome of those recommendations, of the total area of some 427,000 ha of land remaining in public ownership in the Box-Ironbark regions of the State, 120,950 ha is designated as State forest, from which hardwood timber may be produced from suitable areas subject to prescriptions designed to protect and improve environmental values. ³ Most of the sawn timber being produced from these areas is kiln-dried and used for a variety of value-added purposes, including furniture, flooring and window frames. Offcuts are sold as firewood. ⁶