The Evolution of Legislated Obligations for Forest Areas in Victoria
A Summary
A Beveridge & M Leonard
Additional material has been added, and will continue to be added, to the original article prepared by the authors listed above.
The story of the progressive removal of Victoria's forests, and the evolution of legislative and bureaucratic strategies to better understand, and to protect what remained, and to facilitate sustainable timber harvesting and fire management mirrors, and at times impacts significantly on the economic and social history of the Colony/State.
Pastoral squatting in the 1840s, gold rushes of the 1850s, a succession of Land Acts in the 1860s (which were designed in part to ‘...facilitate the alienation of the waste lands of the Crown...’), and the continued expansion of the transport network all combined, by the early 1900s, to produce a geographic distribution of forests that is similar to that of today. It was in 1907 with the passing of the Forests Act, and in 1908 with the creation of a State Forests Department, that the first significant steps were made towards the conservation of the State's forests. That task continued and expanded during the 1900s.
What follows is a brief history of that evolutionary process.
See Also
Overview of Forest Management - 1800s to Early 1980s (S Murphy, July 2024)
Public Land Management - Evolution
1800 to 1872
1800
European sealers and whalers are now active around Bass Strait. The Aboriginal population of the future colony of Victoria is estimated to have been between 30,000 – 70,000.
1834
First permanent European settlement in Victoria established at Portland Bay by the Henty brothers. Sheep runs established.
1835
John Batman seeks to acquire around a quarter of a million hectares between Port Phillip and Corio Bays from the Wurundjeri and Wathaurong Tribes. The initiative is rejected by Sydney-based Governor Bourke and the British subsequently issue an instruction for the appointment of magistrates at Port Phillip, and for the sale of land. The following two years see pastoral runs spreading as far as Winchelsea, Inverleigh and Bacchus Marsh in the west, and Woodend and Kilmore in the north. Increasingly conflict with Aboriginal communities ensues.
1839
First timber licence regulations established under the Land Act (largely ineffective).
1841
"The credit for Melbourne's pioneer sawmill can be attributed to Alison and Knight, who were known to be operating a few weeks before Manton and Co. actually started up in 1841." Source: The Dynamic Forest (FR Moulds, 1991
1851
6th February – ‘Black Thursday’. Under conditions of extreme wind and high temperatures all of what will become Victoria, except the Mallee Region, experiences bushfire.
1st July – Victoria proclaimed a separate Colony: non-aboriginal population estimated to be 77,400.
Discovery of gold: Relatively benign environmental impact of the early pastoralists ends. Massive influx of migrants demands timber for mine props, firewood and for building. The need for food stimulates intensive agricultural development. Forest clearing begins in earnest in the immediate vicinity of the goldfields (Ballarat, Castlemaine, and Bendigo) and spreads. (Population estimates rise to 236,800 in 1854, and 408,600 in 1857).
1st July – Victoria proclaimed a separate Colony: non-aboriginal population estimated to be 77,400.
Discovery of gold: Relatively benign environmental impact of the early pastoralists ends. Massive influx of migrants demands timber for mine props, firewood and for building. The need for food stimulates intensive agricultural development. Forest clearing begins in earnest in the immediate vicinity of the goldfields (Ballarat, Castlemaine, and Bendigo) and spreads. (Population estimates rise to 236,800 in 1854, and 408,600 in 1857).
1852
Second timber licence regulations (Land Act).
1856
November – First meeting of the Victorian Parliament.
1859
"By 1859, there were seventy-one sawmills in Victoria. During the 1860s, this number expanded to 141. Power was supplied by steam in the 1860s, except for the relatively few water-driven sawmills." Source: The Dynamic Forest (FR Moulds, 1991)
1860
The Nicholson Land Act releases 0.33 million ha of land for settlement, and it provokes continuing controversy with the squatters. Subsequent Acts in 1862 and 1865 release a further 2.2 million ha.
1862
First provision in the Land Act for sawmill licences.
1865
The Amending Land Act details the first powers to proclaim reserves for ‘...preservation and growth of timber...’.
1866
The earliest authentic map of Victoria's forest cover is compiled (revised and printed in 1869). Reliability of the map considered to be high. Reveals 20 million ha (or 88%) of Victoria covered by forests and woodlands. By comparison, a Departmental publication in 1987 describes 8 million ha (35% of Victoria) - covered by forests and woodlands. (See also: Woodgate and Keenan)
1867
Around 46400 ha declared State forests and Timber Reserves. Cutting banned in some areas of the You Yang’s to allow regrowth.
1869
The first truly economically successful Land Act passed; 4.7 million ha surveyed and selected. The State's agricultural capacity rapidly expands. New Section 6 of the Act allows the Governor to ‘...reserve from sale any Crown Lands which were required for the growth and preservation of timber...’.
1870s
The first recorded concerns at Government level about remaining forests. Minister for Lands and Agriculture presents (1874) report to Parliament on ‘Forest Conservancy’. Report deals with remaining forests and, in reviewing government action in recent years concludes ‘...no more effectual method of legalising the destruction of timber could be devised…’.
1871, 1873, 1879
Provisions in Land Act to grant exclusive rights to cut timber.
1872
The first State nursery established (at Macedon) to assist in the replanting of cut over areas.
1872 to 1918
1878
First surplus of food produced in the colony. Some 40% of the Colony now alienated.
"A thriving industry of wattle bark stripping (had) developed to supply the tanning factories, so much so that it attracted the attention of government enquiries as to what its future held for the young colony. The most comprehensive was the Wattle Bark Board of Inquiry 1878." Source: The Dynamic Forest (FR Moulds, 1991)
"A thriving industry of wattle bark stripping (had) developed to supply the tanning factories, so much so that it attracted the attention of government enquiries as to what its future held for the young colony. The most comprehensive was the Wattle Bark Board of Inquiry 1878." Source: The Dynamic Forest (FR Moulds, 1991)
1879
First ‘Forest’ Bill brought before Parliament to create forest reserves, management powers etc. This Bill and subsequent ones (1881, 1887 and 1892) were never enacted.
1887
Deputy Conservator for the Government of Madras (within the Indian Forest Service) F d'A Vincent, inspects Victoria's forests. The Report is scathing. and the Government decides not to publish it. But here is a Transcript of the Report, and here a Copy of the Original.
1890
Land Act provides power to forbid timber cutting on any area.
1893
First royalty regulations made - under the Land Act.
1897
Royal Commission on forestry commences investigations.
1900
Royal Commission urges ‘...appropriate legislation, policy and bureaucratic support... to ensure effective management and conservation of forests...’.
1907
First Forests Act passed. Comprehensive treatment of most ‘forest-related’ matters. Far reaching by previous standards.
1908
State Forests Department formed under a new Minister of Forests. Timber royalties result in a profit in the Department's first year of operation. Political motives for Department seen as to keep high quality forests in public ownership, reduce dependency on timber imports, and some concerns with fire.
1911
Experimental State timber seasoning works opens at Newport.
1912
First area set aside for ‘...the preservation of flora and fauna...’.
1918
Battles continue over land alienation. ‘Forest estate’ now around 1.6 million ha.
The Forests Commission is established by the Forests Act 1918.
Commission principles of establishment were:
See also: A Brief History of the FCV
The Forests Commission is established by the Forests Act 1918.
Commission principles of establishment were:
- the conservation, development and utilisation of the indigenous forests, based on sound forestry principles
- the establishment of adequate plantations of exotic softwood species
- the prosecution of essential research work concerning the natural products of the forests and
- the need for an effective fire prevention and fire suppression organisation
See also: A Brief History of the FCV
1918 to 1939
1919
The Forests Commission meets for the first time with Owen Jones as Chairman and HR Mackay and W Code as Commissioners. AV Galbraith (who was to become Chairman in 1927/28) is the Secretary.
The Forestry Fund is established (allows Commission to keep half income obtained from royalties etc). Implied ‘independence’ significant.
The Forestry Fund is established (allows Commission to keep half income obtained from royalties etc). Implied ‘independence’ significant.
1920
First Premier's Conference to consider forest matters. Concludes 9.8 million ha nationally should be permanently reserved as forest, to secure timber supplies. (Victorian component 2.2 million ha).
In it's First Annual Report (1919/1920) the FCV outlines the way forward.
In it's First Annual Report (1919/1920) the FCV outlines the way forward.
1920s
Land tenure battles continue for forest reservations; experiments with eucalypt pulp and timber treatment processes; concerns about imports of timber (from interstate and overseas) continue; eucalyptus oil distillation plant established by the Commission; forest-based unemployment relief camps become a feature in late-1920s.
1924/25
Save the Otways? - “These indications of an increasing public sense that forests are a necessity and not a nuisance, satisfactory though they are so far as they go, are, however, far from proving that the desired ‘forest conscience‘ has as yet been generally awakened. Against them must be set the constant pressure, backed by all the influence which selfishly interested parties do not hesitate to exert, to nibble still more of the forests away, or to refuse the addition to them of areas admittedly best suited for purposes of timber growing. This adverse influence culminated during the year in a determined effort to alienate from the Otway an area which would virtually have meant the extinction of this famous forest. After a stern fight the interest of the forest won the day, and for the time being, at least, the Otway forest is saved.” Source: FCV Annual Report 1924/25
1925/26
A forest engineering branch has been initiated providing for the exploitation of forest areas especially those hitherto inaccessible, where through preliminary survey it is known that valuable stands of commercial species of trees have attained maturity. Major WJ Lakeland, an engineer of wide experience in Burmah and elsewhere, has been appointed the Commission's first forest engineer.
1928/29
British Empire Forestry Conference held in Australia. Helps focus attention on forest matters, and the need for more permanent forest reserves.
Early 1930s
Unemployed relief works widespread in native forests and in eucalypt and softwood plantations. Much silvicultural work undertaken in all forest types (and related research).
By 1931 it is estimated that 80% of flooring laid down in Melbourne was kiln-dried Mountain Ash.
Reforestation of the Otway’s commences.
By 1931 it is estimated that 80% of flooring laid down in Melbourne was kiln-dried Mountain Ash.
Reforestation of the Otway’s commences.
1936
Agreement reached between Australian Paper Manufactures (APM) and the Commission to establish a paper-making industry. The pioneering and long-term Wood Pulp Agreement Act 1936 incorporates ‘sawlog driven’ and ‘sustained yield’ principles. Operations to be governed by ‘plans of utilisation’ to be drawn up by the Commission.
1939
January - Massive forest fires (‘Black Friday’). 71 lives lost. Over 2 million ha burnt. Townships obliterated. Most destructive fires since 1851. Subsequent Royal Commission dramatically changes non-metropolitan fire service provisions.
August - Conference of all State forest authorities and Commonwealth, convened by the Victorian Premier resolves that:
- the jurisdiction of the Forest Authority should be extended to embrace a protective belt of land on the margins of State forest and timber reserves
- the Forest Authority, assisted by a committee of experts of land and water supply departments, should prepare a code of management for all watersheds and catchment areas in mountain regions, and take over full control, including control of grazing in such areas
- a Rural Fire Brigade Board be instituted on which shall be represented all fire-fighting organisations to advise on fire protection measures on private lands
Forests Act (1939) extends Commission's fire protection responsibilities to national parks, other public lands and to lands within 1.5 km of both State forests and National parks. (Commission responsibility thus grows from 2.4 million ha to 6.5 million ha)
Salvage of fire killed timber commences - salvage ceased in 1950, some 15 million cubic metres of timber being recovered. Current Central Highlands forests are good examples of the subsequent regeneration achieved.
1939 to 1970
1939/45
War years. Establishment of ‘Commonwealth Timber Controller’. War needs saw significant advances in utilisation, processing and ‘value adding’.
1941/52
State Emergency Firewood Committee to provide alternatives to rationed gas, electricity and other fuels. 500,000 tonnes of wood required annually.
1945/50
Post-War housing boom commences. Record harvests of timber from both public and private lands:
- reforestation of Strzelecki Ranges commences (1945/46)
- assessment of the largely un-roaded central East Gippsland forests commence
- major roading of many forest areas underway - by 1948 the State network exceeds 5000 km
- timber sources start to shift to the east and north-east
- plantation program proceeding at a modest rate
- ‘Equated’ royalty determination comes into operation on 1/1/50.
- Commission continues to lobby for reserves of forest to be increased
1955
Significant increase in forest estate (total rises to 2.2 million ha).
1956
A National Parks Authority is constituted to provide co-ordinated management of the National Parks already reserved under the land Act.(The Authority’s development is slow for some years. The Authority becomes the National Parks Service in 1970).
1958
The Forests Act 1958 expands many previous sections of the Act, redesignates the Forestry Fund, establishes Section 50 for special purpose reserves (scenic, recreation etc.); and provides for the appointment of Committees of Management. (Section 50 legitimatises some 20 years of previous active involvement in this area.)
1961
Federal and State governments agree on a major expansion to the nation's softwood resource. Victoria agrees to establish 2000 ha/yr for the next 40 years.
1962
Significant numbers of special purpose reserves now established (59 areas, 7500 ha).
1964
Establishment of the ‘Australian Forestry Council’. One of the Council's first decisions sets a target, nationally, of 1.2 million ha of softwoods to be in place by the year 2000. (Victoria to increase its annual establishment rate to 2400 ha). Commonwealth provides loan monies.
Mid 1960s
FCV research capacity now well established and includes specialist expertise in entomology, pathology, hydrology and genetics.
1966
‘Farm Forestry’ program commences.
1967
"During 1967 the Softwood Forestry Agreements Act 1967 was passed. It is designed to finance a substantial expansion in the rate of plantations establishment being undertaken by the States." Source: 1969 Year Book
1969
FCV oversights the establishment of the ‘Timber Promotion Council’. (via an amendment to the Forests Act).
1970
Controversial proposal by Minister for Lands to develop 0.2 million hectares of mallee vegetation in the Little Desert leads to the formation of the Land Conservation Council (LCC-1971).
1970 to 1987
1971
Crown grant to the Lake Tyers and Framlingham Aboriginal Trusts – the first Land Rights legislation in Australia
Forests (Bowater-Scott Agreement) Act facilitates the establishment of the first fully integrated softwood processing industry.
Forests (Bowater-Scott Agreement) Act facilitates the establishment of the first fully integrated softwood processing industry.
FCV establishes ‘Forest Environment and Recreation’ Branch. Significant resources now being devoted to non-timber and non-fire related issues.
1973
A Ministry of Conservation is formed with the objective of co-ordinating those aspects of Government concerned with conservation and environment protection. It brings together the Environment Protection Authority, the Fisheries and Wildlife Division, the Soil Conservation Authority, the Land Conservation Council, and the National Parks Service
1974/75
National ‘Forwood’ Conference (AFC initiative) produces national ‘Forestry Development Plan’.
1976
First female students commence studies at the Victorian School of Forestry (Creswick).
1980
As a result of LCC activity the Commission now manages 26 State and Regional parks and numerous other special purpose reserves. Significant forest areas now National Parks. Recreational visits to State forests now estimated to exceed 6 million per year.
1983
February. ‘Ash Wednesday’ fires. 47 persons killed. 120000 ha burnt
May. Public announcement of Government's intention to reorganise the FCV. Article in The Age
August. Following widespread reviews of public land and natural resource managing agencies the State Forests Department (together with the Lands Department, the Soil Conservation Authority, and much of the Ministry of Conservation – including the National Parks Service and the Fisheries and Wildlife Service) is incorporated into a Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands (CFL). The FCV continues to exist in law for several more months.
December. Establishment of a Board of Inquiry (Ferguson) into the timber industry. Inquiry guidelines include:
- the introduction of regional sustained yield
- the need to minimise adverse impacts on employment and dependent communities; and
- the need to ensure continued viability of the industry
The Inquiry’s scope is, arguably, the most detailed since Royal Commission of 1897.
(See: The CFL Discussion Paper prepared for the Inquiry in July 1984.)
1985
Following widespread consultation and investigation the Ferguson Report is provided to Government in May.
1986
August. State Government releases the Timber Industry Strategy (TIS), which is based significantly on the Ferguson (Professor) Report. The TIS signals Government acceptance that ‘...wood production was an integral part of the future management of State forests...’ The Strategy's intention is to ‘...balance environmental values, the social and economic needs of the community, and the capacity of those forests that are available for timber harvesting to provide for sustainable levels of all forest values, both timber and non-timber...’
The Strategy proposes major changes to previous policies including:
The Strategy proposes major changes to previous policies including:
- ‘regional sustained yield’ based harvesting
- greater emphasis on ‘value-adding'
- significantly changed planning procedures
- the development of a ‘Code of Practice for Timber Harvesting’
- the introduction of long-term produce licences
- major redirection of research priorities
- improved financial management for the industry
- proposals for a legislated ‘flora and fauna guarantee’
1987
Clearing of public native forest for softwood establishment ceases.
1988 Onwards
1988
September. Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act proclaimed.
1989
May. Code of Forest Practices for Timber Production endorsed by State Parliament
September. Timber Harvesting Regulations made, giving effect to ‘the Code’ on public land.
September. Timber Harvesting Regulations made, giving effect to ‘the Code’ on public land.
1990
Forest Timber Harvesting Act establishes regional sustained yield.
1990/91
Softwood supplied from public land exceeds hardwood volume for the first time.
National Plantations Advisory Committee Report released.
State Plantation Impact Study Report released.
CFL becomes the Department of Conservation and Environment (DCE).
DCE places on exhibition proposals to control and encourage timber growing on private land.
1992
Federal Resource Assessment Commission releases major report on Australia's forests and forest industries.
The High Court of Australia’s decision in the Mabo case. (In 1993 the federal parliament enacts the Native Title Act 1993 (C'mwth) to give statutory effect to the High Court’s decision).
Since the mid-1980s the area of National and other parks has increased from 3.8% to 12% of State's total land area.
State Government announces intention to ‘corporatize’ the State's softwood plantations.
First commercial accounts for public forestry released.
First of new Forest Management Plans released - for the Otways.
The National Forest Policy Statement was signed by the Australian Government and all mainland state and territory governments in December 1992, and by the Tasmanian Government in April 1995.
The High Court of Australia’s decision in the Mabo case. (In 1993 the federal parliament enacts the Native Title Act 1993 (C'mwth) to give statutory effect to the High Court’s decision).
Since the mid-1980s the area of National and other parks has increased from 3.8% to 12% of State's total land area.
State Government announces intention to ‘corporatize’ the State's softwood plantations.
First commercial accounts for public forestry released.
First of new Forest Management Plans released - for the Otways.
The National Forest Policy Statement was signed by the Australian Government and all mainland state and territory governments in December 1992, and by the Tasmanian Government in April 1995.
Mid 1990s
"Victoria’s hardwood plantation area expanded rapidly from the mid-1990s to a peak area of about 210,000 ha in 2012 and was about 160,000 ha in 2022." "The expansion of the hardwood plantation area from the 1990s was primarily for export woodchip markets (for Victoria ex Portland, Geelong and Eden ports), and for additional/alternative pulpwood for papermaking at the Maryvale mill in Gippsland." "The wider Victorian R&D contribution to the development of the hardwood plantation estate was supported by or provided through Commonwealth and State policy initiatives, programs and agencies; by private industry; and formal and informal project collaborations ... " Source: Native Hardwood Plantations in Victoria
2019
In November, citing Australian Paper’s move away from using native timber in its paper production and ' ... a reduction in available native timber resources due to fire and wildlife protection ... ', the Victorian government announced that ' ... VicForests (would) extend existing timber supply agreements until 2024, after which native timber supply will be stepped down before ending in 2030 ...'
2023
In May, the Victorian government announced that ' ... Native timber harvesting in State forests will end in 2024 – with existing supports being brought forward and scaled up – which will mean every single timber worker will be directly supported to find a new job ... ' Citing ‘...the uncertainty that has been caused by ongoing court and litigation process, and increasingly severe bushfires...’ a press release stated that the ' ... transition away from native timber logging (would occur) earlier than planned – by 1 January 2024 ... '
2023
VicForests ceased being a State business corporation on 5 September.
2024
"Victoria has 382,600 hectares of plantations. It is the biggest plantation estate in Australia with 22% of the national estate."
"Victoria produces around one quarter of Australia’s plantation grown wood. The industry generates an average of $500 million in value per year and has the largest export volume at around 5.3 million m3 per year."
Source: Victorian Plantations 2024
"Victoria produces around one quarter of Australia’s plantation grown wood. The industry generates an average of $500 million in value per year and has the largest export volume at around 5.3 million m3 per year."
Source: Victorian Plantations 2024
Forest and Fire Responsibility in Victoria
A State Forests Department was established in Victoria in 1908. In 1918 the Forests Commission, Victoria (FCV) was formed to administer the relevant legislation and to manage the Department. From the outset a key requirement of the Department / Commission was to meet ‘…The need for an effective fire prevention and fire suppression organisation….’
Responsibility for the relevant legislation lay with the FCV until 1983. In that year the FCV was effectively incorporated into a new body, the Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands (CFL). That organisation’s successors in law have been the Departments of:
- 1990: Conservation and Environment (DCE)
- 1992: Conservation and Natural Resources (CNR)
- 1996: Natural Resources and Environment (NRE)
- 2002: Sustainability and Environment (DSE)
- 2013: Environment and Primary Industries (DEPI)
- 2015: Environment, Land, Water and Planning (DELWP)
- 2023: Energy, Environment and Climate Action (DEECA)
Note also:
- that the Land Conservation Council, which was formed in 1971, was to play the key role in determing the uses of public land in Victoria from that time.
- that the Government exited the plantation business in 1998, when the plantation business was sold to Hancock Natural Resources Group to form Hancock Victorian Plantations (HVP). For fire management purposes, HVP would become an Industry Brigade under CFA legislation.
- that in 2004, VicForests, a government commercial entity, was established to manage commercial timber harvesting on public land.
Sources for this Article Include:
Doolan, B.V. (2016). Institutional Continuity and Change in Victoria’s Forests and Parks 1900 – 2010. Master of Arts thesis - Monash University. 180 pp.
Moulds, F.R, (1991). The Dynamic Forest – A History of Forestry and Forest Industries in Victoria. Lynedoch Publications. Richmond, Australia. 232 pp.